Authors: Crespo-Santiago, J; Jordana, X; Gesualdo, M; Álvarez, A; Mallafré, H; Wückert, A; Fradera, M; Otero-Vinas, M.

Results in Engineering, 2026.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2026.110448

Keywords: Biomimetic design; Algorithm-aided design; Parametric modeling; 3D-printing; Bone surrogate; Biomechanics

Funding: AEI Clusters Spanish Ministry for Industry and Tourism (AEI-010500–2024–18), Llavor AGAUR Gencat (2023 LLAVOR 0005), and Proyectos de Generación de Conocimiento, Agencia Estatal de Investigación (PID2021–124112NB-100).

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Accurate human bone surrogates are essential for biomechanical research. Existing commercial models provide limited control over microarchitectural features.

In this study, we present Phygital Bone (PHyB), a biomimetic and fully customizable 3D-printed bone surrogate developed using algorithm-aided design (AAD) to reproduce key cortical and trabecular structures. PHyB specimens fabricated with commercially available resins were compared with fresh human femur samples and commercial surrogates. Structural validation was performed through micro-computed tomography and histological analysis, confirming the reproduction of osteonal-like organization, lamellar features, and interconnected Haversian and Volkmann canal networks at the designed scale.

Mechanical characterization under uniaxial compression showed that selected PHyB configurations exhibit compressive properties within the same order of magnitude as human femur samples under controlled conditions. These results are presented as an initial mechanical benchmarking rather than a comprehensive biomechanical validation. By integrating parametric microarchitectural control with additive manufacturing, PHyB provides a customizable platform for controlled experimental studies and future developments in bone surrogates design.

Highlights:

  • Parametric design framework enables reproducible generation of bone-inspired microarchitecture.
  • PHyB 3D-printed models replicate osteonal structure and interconnected canal networks.
  • Controlled generation of Haversian and Volkmann canals using rule-based geometry.
  • Preliminary uniaxial compression tests showed mechanical properties comparable in order of magnitude to human bone and commercial bone surrogates.
  • Material stiffness affects structural fidelity and fracture mechanisms.